Editor’s note (2026):
This article serves as a foundational reflection for the themes explored throughout this blog. Questions of sin, mortality, judgment, and ultimate destiny shape every worldview, whether religious or secular. Many later posts build on these concerns by examining how Scripture—particularly the new covenant—addresses them more fully.
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Every worldview—religious or secular—must eventually reckon with the same unavoidable realities: sin, mortality, judgment, and death. How these realities are understood shapes how people live, hope, and interpret meaning itself. This article explores these questions carefully, not through fear or speculation, but by examining how Scripture speaks about the soul, death, and ultimate accountability.
At first glance, a title like Sin, Soul, Death, and Hell may not invite cheerful reading. One might reasonably be tempted to move on to something more pleasant. Yet my interest here is not rooted in morbidity or a fascination with the darker side of life. Rather, I am convinced that these are subjects every person must eventually confront. They touch the deepest questions of meaning, responsibility, hope, and destiny.
Speaking as a Christian, I believe these four topics—sin, soul, death, and hell—figure prominently in our understanding of the gospel. At the same time, it is evident that disagreement and division persist within the Church regarding how these terms should be understood. There is no single consensus. Instead, strong and often contradictory doctrinal positions exist across denominations. My concern is that, whether through misunderstanding or misuse, these concepts are sometimes reshaped in ways that effectively result in a different gospel being preached.
This raises an important question: Why is there so much disagreement over ideas that seem so foundational? Are there historical influences which resulted in those currently held doctrines and traditions? Are the doctrines (commonly assumed today) truly biblical in origin, or have they been shaped—perhaps unintentionally—by historical, philosophical, and cultural influences external to Scripture? Have certain ideas been imported into the biblical text rather than derived from it? This essay argues that many commonly held views owe as much to Greek philosophy and later theological developments as they do to Scripture itself. I believe this has often been the case, though each reader must ultimately decide for themselves.
Church Tradition, the Fathers, and the Need for Caution:
When doctrinal differences arise, appeal is frequently made to church tradition or to the writings of the so‑called church fathers. While I do see value in engaging these sources, I also believe they must be approached with discernment. Many figures regarded as church fathers lived several centuries after the apostolic era. Their historical, philosophical, and cultural contexts were often quite different from those of the first‑century believers who originally received the gospel message.
Augustine of Hippo is a particularly influential figure in this regard. He wrote extensively on sin, grace, salvation, the soul, and hell, and his views exerted enormous influence on Western Christianity throughout the medieval period and into the present day. Yet Augustine lived more than three hundred years after the Church was established. In several key areas, his theology marked a departure from earlier Christian understandings.
Augustine, Original Sin, and Early Conflict
Augustine’s teachings on grace, salvation, and sin illustrate how theological developments can significantly reshape Christian doctrine. According to Augustine1, human history represents a spiritual conflict between two opposing groups—the seeds of the woman and the seeds of the serpent. In his view, the Church stood in direct opposition to the world and consisted not of all humanity, but of Christians and those mysteriously destined to become Christians.
Central to Augustine’s soteriology was his division of grace into categories. He distinguished between what he called sufficient grace—a grace given to all—and efficacious grace, a grace that works irresistibly and infallibly in the wills of the elect. Salvation, in this scheme, ultimately belonged only to those whom God had eternally chosen.
This teaching represented a sharp break from earlier Christian proclamation. The Church had consistently presented itself as a refuge for all, not merely a predestined few. Scripture repeatedly affirms the universality of Christ’s saving work: Christ died for all, rose for all, and God “desires all people to be saved and to come to the knowledge of the truth” (1 Timothy 2:4).
Scripture itself does not clearly teach that humans are born guilty. Romans 5:12, often cited as proof of inherited sin, more accurately describes how death entered the world through sin, not how guilt is transmitted biologically. The biblical emphasis is consistently on human mortality as the consequence of sin, rather than innate culpability.
Augustine on Sin and the Transmission of Guilt
Augustine’s views on sin were also shaped by a deep suspicion of the physical world, particularly human sexuality. In his debates with Pelagius, Augustine argued that the guilt of original sin was transmitted through the sexual act. While he later softened some of his language, he continued to maintain that Adam’s guilt was passed on biologically and that baptism was necessary to remove this inherited guilt.
In defending these positions, Augustine sometimes relied on his own prior writings and on ideas he attributed—often inaccurately—to earlier church fathers. Over time, these arguments contributed to the widespread acceptance of doctrines such as original sin, irresistible grace, and predestination in Western Christianity.
Notably, the earliest Christian communities did not possess a fully developed doctrine of original sin, and the Eastern Church has never formally adopted it. Historically, the concept begins to appear only in the third century, as theologians sought philosophical explanations for human evil and suffering.
Scripture, Sin, and Death
The Bible does not explicitly teach that humanity is born guilty of original sin. Romans 5:12, often cited as a proof text, more accurately describes how death entered the world through sin, not how guilt is inherited at birth. Scripture consistently teaches that sin entered the world through one man and that death came as a result of sin—but it does not clearly state that Adam’s guilt is biologically transmitted to all humanity.2
Manichaeism and Augustine’s Intellectual Background
To understand Augustine’s theology, it is essential to consider his earlier involvement with Manichaeism3, a dualistic religious system that combined elements of Gnosticism, Christianity, and Persian religion. Manichaeism viewed reality as a cosmic struggle between light and darkness, spirit and matter. Matter was seen as inherently evil, and salvation consisted in freeing the soul from its material prison through special knowledge.
Although Augustine later rejected Manichaeism, many scholars argue that aspects of its dualism continued to influence his thinking—particularly his negative view of the body and his emphasis on the soul’s superiority.
Gnosticism and Its Ongoing Influence
Manichaeism is a form of Gnosticism, a philosophy that has repeatedly resurfaced throughout Christian history. Gnosticism4 teaches that salvation comes through hidden or higher knowledge and often denigrates physical existence. Influenced by Plato, Gnostics exalted the intellect while viewing the body as a hindrance or prison.
This mindset subtly shifted Christian hope away from bodily resurrection and toward the survival of an immortal soul. Historically, such thinking has led either to asceticism5 – harsh denial of the body – or to antinomianism6, the belief that bodily behaviour is morally insignificant.
Greek Philosophy and the Concept of the Soul
The idea of an immortal soul owes much to ancient Greek philosophy. Plato, in particular, argued that the soul is immortal and capable of contemplating eternal truths once freed from the body. Even though such an idea is not expressed anywhere in the Bible, these ideas came to deeply influence later Christian thinkers, including Augustine
Augustine’s extensive engagement with Platonic and Neo‑Platonic philosophy shaped his understanding of the soul’s immortality. Through his writings, Platonic assumptions about the soul became deeply embedded in Western Christian theology.7,8, 9
Resurrection Versus Immortality of the Soul
The central Christian hope found in the New Testament is not escape from the physical world, but resurrection and renewal. The biblical emphasis falls not on the immortality of the soul but on the resurrection of the dead. Paul teaches that immortality is something humans put on in the resurrection, not something they possess by nature. As Paul writes, “this mortal must put on immortality” (1 Corinthians 15:53). Immortality is not portrayed as a natural human possession but as something granted by God through resurrection. God alone is inherently immortal. Salvation, therefore, is not about abandoning creation but about its restoration.
In Scripture, humans are not depicted as souls trapped in bodies, but as unified beings. The Hebrew term nephesh, often translated “soul,” simply means a living being or life itself. Likewise, the Greek psyche frequently means “life,” not an immortal essence separate from the body.10
Reading Scripture in Its Original Context
I close with two reflections that capture the heart of this study. First, Michael Heiser reminds us that Christian tradition is not the interpretive context of Scripture. The Bible must be understood within the worldview of its original authors, not filtered primarily through later creeds, philosophies, or theological systems.
Second, Tammy Galvan‑Barnett powerfully illustrates the danger of mixing Greek dualism with Christian theology. When Christianity is viewed through Platonic lenses, the physical world is devalued, salvation becomes an escape from creation, and faith is reduced to a private, spiritualized experience. Scripture, however, affirms the goodness of creation and looks forward not to escape, but to renewal.
I would like to add a brief quote from the paper by Tammy Galvan-Barnett:
“This study clearly demonstrates the tragic impact of Greek philosophical thought on Christian thought; mixing these two very different modes of thought undermines a biblical approach to Christianity. Furthermore, creating a synthesis between Greek philosophy and Christianity taints both modes of thought. Remember the analogy about the glass of milk and the vomit from the introduction? Neither one is left in its pure form when you mix them together.
Greek dualism adulterates genuine Christian faith. In Platonic Christianity, believers place their spiritual life in a private sphere, separate from public life, rather than integrating their faith with all aspects of life. In this dualistic mindset, biblical faith is understood to be private; we divide God’s universe into two kingdoms; we devalue the physical world – ordinary life, the earth, and humanity; and we reduce the doctrine of salvation to a ticket out of hell and an escape from this evil world. Is this the point of Christ’s teachings in the New Testament – to devalue life on earth? Perhaps a more biblical view of salvation means that humans begin living, truly living in the sense that God meant, once they become believers. Why? Because the point of salvation is realizing the saving grace of Christ and once this happens we ought to begin viewing the world through the lens of Scripture, allowing Scripture to shape us and our worldviews.”11
Concluding Reflections
My purpose in this study has not been to dismiss all tradition or philosophy, but to encourage careful discernment. As I have explored various doctrinal positions over the years, I have come to recognize that some matters remain mysterious, some are unclear, and others are quite plainly taught in Scripture.
The challenge before modern Christians is to resist reading Scripture primarily through the lenses of later creeds, traditions, or philosophical systems. While these may have historical value, they are not inspired. What has become increasingly clear is the importance of reading the Bible within the historical and cultural context in which it was written—and of testing all doctrines against Scripture itself. In this, the Bereans of Acts 17:11 provide a timeless example: they “received the word with all readiness of mind, and searched the Scriptures daily to see whether these things were so.”
That posture—humble, diligent, and Scripture‑centered—is the one I commend to the reader.
Further reading:
Readers interested in how Scripture addresses these questions through the lens of covenant, Christ, and fulfillment may want to explore the Strange Theology series:
Appendix: Notes, References, and Further Study
1. Augustine’s Doctrine of Original Sin, Orthodox Christianity. “Augustine’s Doctrine of Original Sin.”
Source: https://orthodox-christianity.com/2011/02/augustines-doctrine-of-original-sin/
2. Romans 5:12 and Original Sin, Michael S. Heiser, Dr. Michael Heiser Critiques the Church-Age Doctrine of Original Sin.
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T3IkEyhp9FA&t=23s
Supplementary material: https://drmsh.com/romans-512/
3. Manichaeism, Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Manichaeism.” Source: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Manichaeism
4. Gnosticism and the Human Body, David Koyzis, “Gnosticism and the Human Body,” Christian Courier. Source: https://www.christiancourier.ca/gnosticism-and-the-human-body/
5. Asceticism Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Source: https://www.merriam-webster.com/
6. Antinomianism, Wikipedia, “Antinomianism.” Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antinomianism
7. Ancient Theories of the Soul, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, “Ancient Theories of Soul.”
Source: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ancient-soul/
8. Plato’s Doctrine of the Immortality of the Soul, Thomas Marshall Miller, Plato’s Doctrine of the Immortality of the Soul, PhD Dissertation, Princeton University. Source: http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01vx021h330
9. Augustine’s Philosophical Anthropology, “Augustine’s Philosophical Anthropology: Immortality of Human Soul in a Composite Soul-Body.” Source: https://cafn.us/2011/01/26/augustine%E2%80%99s-philosophical-anthropology-immortality-of-human-soul-in-a-composite-soul-body/
10. Biblical Use of “Soul,” Baker’s Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology – “Soul.” Source: https://www.biblestudytools.com/dictionary/soul/
11. Greek Philosophy and Christian Thought, Tammy Galvan-Barnett, Approaching Christianity: Exploring the Tragic Impact of Greek Philosophical Thought on Christian Thought. Master’s Thesis, Olivet Nazarene University, August 2012. Source: https://digitalcommons.olivet.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=hist_mapt
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